Term: Road

Definition and Purpose of Driveways - Private road for local access to structures - Owned and maintained by individuals or groups - Rarely have traffic lights - Designed and decorated differently from public roads - Not resurfaced, cleared of snow, or maintained by governments Materials Used for Driveways - Concrete - Decorative brick - Cobblestone - Block paving - Asphalt Uses of Driveways - Paths to garages, carports, or houses - Access road to the house on large estates - Serve multiple homeowners in some cases - Small apron of pavement in front of a garage - Parking cars to leave streets clear for traffic Regulations and Restrictions - Prohibition of parking on residential lawn areas - Time restrictions on leaving vehicles on residential streets - Local regulations on parking and standing of vehicles - Specific restrictions in certain cities or areas - Necessity of using driveways for compliance with regulations Additional Information - Residential driveways used for garage sales, car washing, repair, and recreation - Related terms: access management, pavement, parkway - References: Oxford Dictionaries, Township of Barnegat, Parking Enforcement & Restrictions, Transportation Division of Berkeley, CA - Oversize load considerations for driveways

Terminology and History of Sidewalks - Sidewalk is preferred in most of North America. - Pavement is more common in the United Kingdom and other members of the Commonwealth of Nations, as well as parts of the Mid-Atlantic United States. - Many Commonwealth countries use the term footpath. - In the United States, sidewalk is used for the pedestrian path beside a road. - Walkway is a more comprehensive term that includes stairs, ramps, passageways, and related structures. - Sidewalks have operated for at least 4,000 years. - The Greek city of Corinth had sidewalks by the 4th-century BC. - The Romans built sidewalks called 'sēmitae.' - Early attempts at ensuring the maintenance of sidewalks were often made, but not very effective. - Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, attempts were made to bring order to the city. Benefits and Transportation of Sidewalks - Sidewalks aid road safety by minimizing interaction between pedestrians, horses, carriages, and automobiles. - In town and city centers, sidewalks can occupy more than half of the width of the road or the whole road can be pedestrianized. - Sidewalks may have a small effect on reducing vehicle miles traveled and carbon dioxide emissions. - Research in Florida found that the installation of sidewalks resulted in a 74% reduction in crashes. - The presence of a sidewalk has a strong beneficial effect on reducing the risk of pedestrian/motor vehicle crashes. - Sidewalks provide a path for people to walk along without stepping on horse manure. - Crosswalks provide pedestrians a space to cross between the two sides of the street. - Sidewalks are more common in suburban and urban areas. - In town and city centers, pedestrian traffic can exceed motorized traffic. - Rural roads may not have sidewalks if the amount of traffic does not justify separating pedestrians and motorized vehicles. Environmental Impact of Sidewalks - Sidewalks may have a small effect on reducing vehicle miles traveled and carbon dioxide emissions. - A study in Seattle found vehicle travel reductions of 6 to 8% and CO2 emission reductions of 1.3 to 2.2% due to sidewalk and transit investments. - Sidewalks contribute to creating a more sustainable transportation system. - By providing a safe and convenient walking infrastructure, sidewalks encourage walking as a mode of transportation. - Increased walking and decreased reliance on motorized vehicles can lead to improved air quality and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Health and Social Uses of Sidewalks - Residents of neighborhoods with sidewalks have lower rates of cardiovascular disease and obesity. - Walking to school improves children's concentration. - Sidewalks promote physical activity and reduce sedentary lifestyles. - Regular walking on sidewalks can improve overall health and well-being. - Sidewalks provide safe spaces for exercise and outdoor activities. - Sidewalks can be used as social spaces for sidewalk cafés, markets, and busking musicians. - Some sidewalks are used for parking cars, motorbikes, and bicycles. - Sidewalks facilitate social interactions and community engagement. - Sidewalks contribute to the vibrancy and liveliness of urban areas. Construction and Future Trends of Sidewalks - Concrete is the most common material used for sidewalks in North America. - Tarmac, asphalt, brick, stone, and rubber are commonly used in Europe. - Different materials have varying environmental impacts. - Meandering sidewalks are used to break up the monotony of city blocks. - Multi-use paths alongside roads are often made of softer materials like asphalt. - Wood sidewalks were common in 19th and early 20th century North America. - Historic beach locations and conservation areas may still have wooden boardwalks. - Wood sidewalks protect the land beneath and around them. - Wood provides a unique aesthetic appeal to certain areas. - Wooden sidewalks are part of the cultural heritage in some regions. - Brick sidewalks are used for aesthetic purposes in urban areas. - Brick hammers, rollers, and motorized vibrators are used to consolidate brick sidewalks. - Some cities, like Cambridge, Massachusetts, have extensive brick sidewalks. - Brick sidewalks can create a sense of charm and character in a neighborhood. - The laying of brick sidewalks requires specific tessellation patterns. - Smart sidewalks with embedded technology for data collection. - Use of sustainable materials in sidewalk construction. - Integration of green infrastructure, such as tree planting and rain gardens. - Implementation of shared space concepts for pedestrians and vehicles. - Adoption of flexible design approaches to accommodate changing needs.

Definition and Importance of Construction Aggregate - Construction aggregate is a category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction. It includes materials such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete, and geosynthetic aggregates. - Aggregates are widely used in drainage applications, foundation and French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall drains, and roadside edge drains. They are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. - Aggregates can be used as a low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. - Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. - They are a component of composite materials like concrete and asphalt, adding strength to the overall material. - Aggregates have high hydraulic conductivity, making them suitable for drainage applications. - They provide a stable foundation or road/rail base with predictable properties. - They are essential for construction projects, including roads, buildings, and infrastructure. European and ASTM Specifications for Construction Aggregate - Sizing ranges for aggregates in Europe are specified using square mesh grating measurements. European Standard EN 13043 covers road construction sizings, EN 13383 specifies sizings for larger armour stone, EN 12620 is for concrete aggregate, EN 13242 covers base layers of road construction, and EN 13450 is for railway ballast. - The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes specifications for construction aggregate products. ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 are examples of these specifications. - State transportation departments refine aggregate material specifications to meet their local needs and supply. These specifications include additives for asphalt and concrete mixes. Sources of Construction Aggregate - Aggregate sources can be grouped into three main areas: mining of mineral deposits, use of waste slag, and recycling of concrete. - Sand, gravel, and stone are mined for aggregate. - Slag from iron and steel manufacturing can be used as aggregate. - Concrete can be recycled to produce aggregate. - Some specialty lightweight aggregates include clay, pumice, perlite, and vermiculite. Uses and Recycling of Aggregates - Recycled glass aggregate can be used as a substitute for pea gravel or crushed rock in construction projects. It can also be used as pipe bedding and fill for leveling concrete floors. - Recycled aggregates can be used as subbase for roads and driveways, helping contractors save on disposal costs. - Aggregates themselves can be recycled, especially in urban areas. Mobile recycling plants eliminate the need for transportation to a central site. - Geosynthetic aggregates made from recycled materials, including plastics, can replace conventional gravel and improve porosity and hydraulic conductivity. - Many aggregate products are recycled for other industrial purposes, reducing disposal costs. Recycled Aggregates in the UK and Challenges/Innovations - In the UK, recycled aggregate is produced from processed construction material. In 2008, 67 million tonnes of recycled aggregate were produced out of a total of 210 million tonnes. The Waste and Resource Action Programme has established a Quality Protocol for regulated production. - Using minced tires as part of concrete aggregate can result in tougher concrete, but it reduces compressive strength. Applying pressure to the concrete as it sets can improve strength. Scientists have also developed concrete with 100% tire-rubber aggregate, creating a sustainable solution.